Global Negative Effects of Flu
Flu, the short term for Influenza, is a disease caused by a viral infection that generally affects the respiratory system particularly the nose, throat, bronchi and lungs as characterized by clinical manifestations such as sudden onset of high-fever, aching muscles, headache, severe malaise, non-productive cough, sore throat, rhinitis (WHO, 2009), myagia, and pharyngitis (Keen, 1995). The mentioned signs and symptoms usually last for about one to two weeks and subsequent recovery of the patient follows even without the application of medical interventions (WHO, 2009). Unfortunately, this is not the case for most of the patients who have incurred the said disease because in the population of the young, the elderly, and the immunocompromised influenza patients are usually exposed to further complications of the underlying disease (WHO, 2009). The specific characteristics of the post-influenza complications are composed of pneumonia caused by influenza itself, pneumonia caused by other bacteria like Haemophilus influenza, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, and pneumonia caused by the superinfection of other viral representatives and all of which can lead to untimely death of the patients involved (Keen, 1995).
Members of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses are the causative agent of influenza and they generally reside in the the body systems of human beings and other animals while their mode of transmission is via rapid aerial droplet spread or through the mediation of fomites, non-living objects like air-conditioning units or handkerchiefs that can be used as a channels of transmission (Keen, 1995). Portals of entry of the infectious agents of the Orthomyxoviridae family are the openings of the respiratory tract that eventually channel them to the pharynx or lower respiratory tract where they are able to initiate the preliminary steps of the infection process (Keen, 1995). To further elucidate the infection process of influenza, it will be necessary to discuss the basic parts of the influenza virus and the specific mechanism of infection. The influenza virus has the following features: may either be round or long to filamentous, with a single-stranded RNA genome, a helical nucleoprotein (NP), exist in eight separate, but replication-interrelated, segments of ribonucleoprotein (RNP), presence of an envelope that is lined by an antigenic protein called the matrix protein (MP1) and has one of the two types of envelope spikes, neuraminidase (NA) and haemagglutinin (HA) (Keen, 1995). Of the two mentioned types of envelope spikes, neuraminidase is the one that has nine major antigenic types and has an enzymatic property, while the second, haemagglutin (HA), has 13 major antigenic types, can function during virus attachment to the cell membrane, and can interact with a variety of human cells (Keen, 1995). Mechanism of infection of the influenza virus starts with the process of endocytosis, engulfment of the viral cell into the host cell, followed by the release of the RNP from MP1, fusion of the viral lipoprotein with the lipid bilayer of the vesicle, release of the viral RNP into the cell cytoplasm, transcription and translation of new viral proteins, release of the progeny virions and subsequent death of the host cell (Keen, 1995). Hence, it can be said that the process of viral influenza infection is characterized by a series of steps that are all essential in the fulfillment of the disease proliferation.
Aside from the features of the viral influenza and the mechanism of the infection process, the classification of virus strains is another important topic in the study of influenza. Classification of the viral strains of influenza is done on the basis of the antigenic properties of the nucleoprotein and the matrix protein and this manner of classification renders three groups, Influenza A, Influenza B, and Influenza C (Keen, 1995). Furthermore, influenza can be named based on the reservoir of the infectious agent, hence the terms: avian flu, dog flu, and swine flu (WHO, 2009), and the place where the influenza type was first observed, as exemplified by influenza names such as Spanish influenza, Hong Kong influenza and many others (Keen, 1995). The aforementioned influenza types have caused detrimental to lethal effects in a variety of people all over the globe and have even resulted to the death of millions of people (WHO, 2009). However, most of the literature nowadays focus on the features of the causative agents of influenza and few on the effects of this disease. Therefore, the goal of this research paper is to discuss the global negative effects of influenza in order to emphasize the harmful consequences of the mentioned medical ailment and to increase the awareness of citizens worldwide.
Discussion
A. Cellular Biology and Normal Human Processes
As mentioned earlier, influenza virus is the causative agent of flu and this can be found in a variety of sources including man, domestic animals and wild birds (WHO, 2009). Studies of viral properties have revealed the mechanisms by which these microscopic particles are able to interact with its intended host cell through the release of cellular proteins while avoiding the anti-viral effects of the host cell's immune system, and facilitating the production of viral DNAs and proteins (Geiss et al., 2001). Being representatives of the submicroscopic, intracellular infectious agents, the influenza virus has the capacity to undergo mutational processes in order to cope with the changing facets of their host and the environment and to be able to comply with the demands of their diverse physiology (Geiss et al., 2001). Included in the list of the mutational activities of viral influenza are the alterations on the cellular pathway, particularly on cellular gene expression, of both the causative agent and the host, as examined through the analysis of the viral-dependent and viral-independent events in 4, 600 genes of different host cells (Geiss et al., 2001). It was discovered that infections with active and inactive influenza viruses render identifiable changes in cellular gene expression that were either dependent on or independent of the viral replication process, respectively, and these changes are characterized by downregulation of many mRNAs, enhancement of protein synthesis, transcriptional regulation, and cytokine signalling of the host (Geiss et al., 2001). Furthermore, it was also noted that host cells that were exposed to inactivated influenza viruses were induced to release the cellular metallothionein genes which are suspected to be responsible for virus-induced oxidative stress and these genes are promising points of manipulation in the production of medicines or other active components that can act against the viral influenza (Geiss et al., 2001).
Another mutational activity of viral influenza is their ability to cause changes in the immune respiratory responses of the host cells as manifested by the innate immune signals and these innate immune signals are composed of the activation of the primary B cell responses in connection with the presence of Ag and costimulatory signals of the T cells (Chang et al., 2007). It was discovered by the researchers that the influenza virus-induced type 1 IFN is the the “main third B cell signal following influenza infection causing early trapping of B cells in regional lymph nodes” and thereby increasing the association of the innate immune cells with noncognate stimulation of the respiratory responses (Chang et al., 2007, 1457). This observation suggests that the influenza viruses are capable of inducing global changes in the respiratory features of the infected individual, or animals in some cases, that can eventually result to non-innate immune signals of the body (Chang et al., 2007). Hence, the two aforementioned observations suggest the undeniable ability of influenza viruses to cause significant alterations and subsequent permanent mutations in the normal cellular processes of the host. This means that in the event that the host escapes death that is induced by the underlying influenza disease, he or she will then be a significant carrier of genetic and cellular changes that can eventually affect his or her own way of life and can be transferred to his or her progenies. In the long run, influenza viruses are seen to induce global negative effects in the preservation of the genetic make-up and cellular features of humans, animals and other living species that are influenced by the activities of these infectious agents.
B. Medicine
In order to control the proliferation of viral influenza diseases, vaccines and antiviral drugs are needed to serve as the primary weapons against the spread of the infectious agent because these materials are scientifically identified and historically-tested to reduce the illness and death during an influenza pandemic (WHO, 2009). However, in the face of threatening influenza pandemics, scientists worldwide agree that these kind of medical supplies will be inadequate and the supply will surely be non-proportional to the demand and developing countries, in particular, are the areas that will surely be underserved (WHO, 2009). Hence, this assumption is an additional entry to the list of global negative effects of influenza because such event will result to commotion in the medical area and panic in the side of medical experts in order to comply with the demands of the ailing patients (WHO, 2009). Moreover, as with the case of any medically compromising disease, potential negative effects of influenza is characterized by the continuous trail-and-error methods of researchers to find novel elements and methods that can help alleviate,if not totally eliminate, the detrimental to lethal effects of the said disease. Nowadays, numerous efforts from various research organizations are being done in order to formulate methods and other mechanisms targeting the cellular level that can help prevent and control the spread of the influenza virus and one of these is the use of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor in experimental human influenza (Hayden et al., 1999). The previously mentioned experiment made use of healthy and susceptible volunteers that were exposed to the experimental influenza and treated with the placebo and the oral neuraminidase and this kind of research intervention is well-accepted in the scientific community (Hayden et al., 1999). However, negative effects will still arise if participants, despite the fact that they were not forced to join the experiment, will be at risk to subsequent clinical effects of the experimental procedures and this is in connection to the fact no single scientific experiment is free of risks and other predicted negative effects. In this sense, it can be said that the continuous efforts to produce human vaccines, through the usage of human participants, that will treat influenza, can pose significant danger to the physiological quality of life of the participants, as supported by the assumptions that scientific errors may arise at any point of the experiment.
C. Economy
According to the World Heath Organization, the economy is one of the aspects of modern human life that will suffer the most from the effects of influenza and this is because of the fact that high rate of absenteeism among the members of the workforce that will be affected by the influenza will contribute to economic disruption of the interrelated and interdependent systems of trade and commerce (WHO, 2009). Our modern environment today has allowed the increased globalization as manifested by the linkages and interdependencies between and among the private, public, government, residential, trade, and non-trade sectors of the globe (Murphy, 2006). The book, Global Macroeconomic Consequences of Pandemic Influenza, by McKibbin and Sidorenko of the Australian National University which was released in 2006, contained the predictions of the two economic experts regarding the projected negative monetary impacts of the pandemic influenza in a global perspective and these are the following: global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) slashed to about $4.4 trillion, or 12.6%, more severe effects on the Asia-Pacific region as characterized by $100 billion to $300 billion worth of monetary damages following the surge of an influenza pandemic, and over-all attack rate that will exceed the 30% damage experienced by previous influenza pandemics like the Spanish flu and Hong Kong flu (Murphy, 2006). To further elucidate the worse scenario, the researchers said that the death of about 142 million people worldwide will result to as mush as 50% reduction in the global GDP with a correspondence of about 12.6% or $4.4 trillion and this is supported by the deflation of the central banks, demands of developed countries and pegged currencies of developing or third-world countries (Murphy, 2006). Furthermore, McKibbin and Sidorenko said that the impact on th developing countries will be compounded by the trading volumes and flight of of investors who will “rush to pull fonds from these countries” (Murphy, 2006, 59). In general, it can be said that, although accurate predictions on the impact of threatening flu pandemics cannot be exactly formulated, economists worldwide still agree that even if the world will be exposed to mild pandemics, everyone will still suffers and no one, regardless of economic stratus or monetary possessions will be free from the global negative effects of influenza (Murphy, 2006 ).
D. Deaths
Previous influenza pandemics have retrieved the life of a number of innocent individuals (Keen, 1995). The first well-documented case of influenza outbreak was recorded in 1580 and about 28 more cases were documented from that year up to 1900 while Spanish influenza was the first flu pandemic which occurred in 1918-1919 and victimized about 40 to 50 million people worldwide, the most number of recorded deaths that is caused by a single medical ailment (GMA News Research, 2009). The Spanish influenza affected citizens between 20 to 45 of age in the areas of North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Brazil, and the South Pacific and its causative agent was specifically, influenza type A virus H1N1 (GMA News Research, 2009). Asian influenza, on the other hand, is the second flu pandemic that hit the globe in 1957-1958, killed about 2 million people, and was caused by type A virus H2N2 (GMA News Research, 2009). It was first identified in China and it generally affected the older population including people of ages 55 years old and above (GMA News Research, 2009). The third flu pandemic, Hong Kong influenza, was identified in 1968 and victimized about 1 million people in the Southeast Asia through the action of its causative agent, type A virus H3N2 (). The last of these pandemics is the Swine flu H1N1 which was first discovered in North America and spread n all parts of the globe (WHO, 2009).
Influenza is indeed a disease that can cause mild signs and symptoms to healthy individuals but not to the children, the old, and the immunocompromised patients because post-complications can surely aggravate the burdens of the underlying diseases. The global negative effects of the disease can better be understood by looking at the four aspect of human life and this are Biology, Medicine, Economy and Deaths. These are the areas which are most affected by the prevalence of the disease. Consequently, the fate of mankind lies in the hands of the present generation and the actions that will shape the future. Everyone should act hand-in-hand to control and mitigate the effects of the deadly influenza disease.
Members of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses are the causative agent of influenza and they generally reside in the the body systems of human beings and other animals while their mode of transmission is via rapid aerial droplet spread or through the mediation of fomites, non-living objects like air-conditioning units or handkerchiefs that can be used as a channels of transmission (Keen, 1995). Portals of entry of the infectious agents of the Orthomyxoviridae family are the openings of the respiratory tract that eventually channel them to the pharynx or lower respiratory tract where they are able to initiate the preliminary steps of the infection process (Keen, 1995). To further elucidate the infection process of influenza, it will be necessary to discuss the basic parts of the influenza virus and the specific mechanism of infection. The influenza virus has the following features: may either be round or long to filamentous, with a single-stranded RNA genome, a helical nucleoprotein (NP), exist in eight separate, but replication-interrelated, segments of ribonucleoprotein (RNP), presence of an envelope that is lined by an antigenic protein called the matrix protein (MP1) and has one of the two types of envelope spikes, neuraminidase (NA) and haemagglutinin (HA) (Keen, 1995). Of the two mentioned types of envelope spikes, neuraminidase is the one that has nine major antigenic types and has an enzymatic property, while the second, haemagglutin (HA), has 13 major antigenic types, can function during virus attachment to the cell membrane, and can interact with a variety of human cells (Keen, 1995). Mechanism of infection of the influenza virus starts with the process of endocytosis, engulfment of the viral cell into the host cell, followed by the release of the RNP from MP1, fusion of the viral lipoprotein with the lipid bilayer of the vesicle, release of the viral RNP into the cell cytoplasm, transcription and translation of new viral proteins, release of the progeny virions and subsequent death of the host cell (Keen, 1995). Hence, it can be said that the process of viral influenza infection is characterized by a series of steps that are all essential in the fulfillment of the disease proliferation.
Aside from the features of the viral influenza and the mechanism of the infection process, the classification of virus strains is another important topic in the study of influenza. Classification of the viral strains of influenza is done on the basis of the antigenic properties of the nucleoprotein and the matrix protein and this manner of classification renders three groups, Influenza A, Influenza B, and Influenza C (Keen, 1995). Furthermore, influenza can be named based on the reservoir of the infectious agent, hence the terms: avian flu, dog flu, and swine flu (WHO, 2009), and the place where the influenza type was first observed, as exemplified by influenza names such as Spanish influenza, Hong Kong influenza and many others (Keen, 1995). The aforementioned influenza types have caused detrimental to lethal effects in a variety of people all over the globe and have even resulted to the death of millions of people (WHO, 2009). However, most of the literature nowadays focus on the features of the causative agents of influenza and few on the effects of this disease. Therefore, the goal of this research paper is to discuss the global negative effects of influenza in order to emphasize the harmful consequences of the mentioned medical ailment and to increase the awareness of citizens worldwide.
Discussion
A. Cellular Biology and Normal Human Processes
As mentioned earlier, influenza virus is the causative agent of flu and this can be found in a variety of sources including man, domestic animals and wild birds (WHO, 2009). Studies of viral properties have revealed the mechanisms by which these microscopic particles are able to interact with its intended host cell through the release of cellular proteins while avoiding the anti-viral effects of the host cell's immune system, and facilitating the production of viral DNAs and proteins (Geiss et al., 2001). Being representatives of the submicroscopic, intracellular infectious agents, the influenza virus has the capacity to undergo mutational processes in order to cope with the changing facets of their host and the environment and to be able to comply with the demands of their diverse physiology (Geiss et al., 2001). Included in the list of the mutational activities of viral influenza are the alterations on the cellular pathway, particularly on cellular gene expression, of both the causative agent and the host, as examined through the analysis of the viral-dependent and viral-independent events in 4, 600 genes of different host cells (Geiss et al., 2001). It was discovered that infections with active and inactive influenza viruses render identifiable changes in cellular gene expression that were either dependent on or independent of the viral replication process, respectively, and these changes are characterized by downregulation of many mRNAs, enhancement of protein synthesis, transcriptional regulation, and cytokine signalling of the host (Geiss et al., 2001). Furthermore, it was also noted that host cells that were exposed to inactivated influenza viruses were induced to release the cellular metallothionein genes which are suspected to be responsible for virus-induced oxidative stress and these genes are promising points of manipulation in the production of medicines or other active components that can act against the viral influenza (Geiss et al., 2001).
Another mutational activity of viral influenza is their ability to cause changes in the immune respiratory responses of the host cells as manifested by the innate immune signals and these innate immune signals are composed of the activation of the primary B cell responses in connection with the presence of Ag and costimulatory signals of the T cells (Chang et al., 2007). It was discovered by the researchers that the influenza virus-induced type 1 IFN is the the “main third B cell signal following influenza infection causing early trapping of B cells in regional lymph nodes” and thereby increasing the association of the innate immune cells with noncognate stimulation of the respiratory responses (Chang et al., 2007, 1457). This observation suggests that the influenza viruses are capable of inducing global changes in the respiratory features of the infected individual, or animals in some cases, that can eventually result to non-innate immune signals of the body (Chang et al., 2007). Hence, the two aforementioned observations suggest the undeniable ability of influenza viruses to cause significant alterations and subsequent permanent mutations in the normal cellular processes of the host. This means that in the event that the host escapes death that is induced by the underlying influenza disease, he or she will then be a significant carrier of genetic and cellular changes that can eventually affect his or her own way of life and can be transferred to his or her progenies. In the long run, influenza viruses are seen to induce global negative effects in the preservation of the genetic make-up and cellular features of humans, animals and other living species that are influenced by the activities of these infectious agents.
B. Medicine
In order to control the proliferation of viral influenza diseases, vaccines and antiviral drugs are needed to serve as the primary weapons against the spread of the infectious agent because these materials are scientifically identified and historically-tested to reduce the illness and death during an influenza pandemic (WHO, 2009). However, in the face of threatening influenza pandemics, scientists worldwide agree that these kind of medical supplies will be inadequate and the supply will surely be non-proportional to the demand and developing countries, in particular, are the areas that will surely be underserved (WHO, 2009). Hence, this assumption is an additional entry to the list of global negative effects of influenza because such event will result to commotion in the medical area and panic in the side of medical experts in order to comply with the demands of the ailing patients (WHO, 2009). Moreover, as with the case of any medically compromising disease, potential negative effects of influenza is characterized by the continuous trail-and-error methods of researchers to find novel elements and methods that can help alleviate,if not totally eliminate, the detrimental to lethal effects of the said disease. Nowadays, numerous efforts from various research organizations are being done in order to formulate methods and other mechanisms targeting the cellular level that can help prevent and control the spread of the influenza virus and one of these is the use of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor in experimental human influenza (Hayden et al., 1999). The previously mentioned experiment made use of healthy and susceptible volunteers that were exposed to the experimental influenza and treated with the placebo and the oral neuraminidase and this kind of research intervention is well-accepted in the scientific community (Hayden et al., 1999). However, negative effects will still arise if participants, despite the fact that they were not forced to join the experiment, will be at risk to subsequent clinical effects of the experimental procedures and this is in connection to the fact no single scientific experiment is free of risks and other predicted negative effects. In this sense, it can be said that the continuous efforts to produce human vaccines, through the usage of human participants, that will treat influenza, can pose significant danger to the physiological quality of life of the participants, as supported by the assumptions that scientific errors may arise at any point of the experiment.
C. Economy
According to the World Heath Organization, the economy is one of the aspects of modern human life that will suffer the most from the effects of influenza and this is because of the fact that high rate of absenteeism among the members of the workforce that will be affected by the influenza will contribute to economic disruption of the interrelated and interdependent systems of trade and commerce (WHO, 2009). Our modern environment today has allowed the increased globalization as manifested by the linkages and interdependencies between and among the private, public, government, residential, trade, and non-trade sectors of the globe (Murphy, 2006). The book, Global Macroeconomic Consequences of Pandemic Influenza, by McKibbin and Sidorenko of the Australian National University which was released in 2006, contained the predictions of the two economic experts regarding the projected negative monetary impacts of the pandemic influenza in a global perspective and these are the following: global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) slashed to about $4.4 trillion, or 12.6%, more severe effects on the Asia-Pacific region as characterized by $100 billion to $300 billion worth of monetary damages following the surge of an influenza pandemic, and over-all attack rate that will exceed the 30% damage experienced by previous influenza pandemics like the Spanish flu and Hong Kong flu (Murphy, 2006). To further elucidate the worse scenario, the researchers said that the death of about 142 million people worldwide will result to as mush as 50% reduction in the global GDP with a correspondence of about 12.6% or $4.4 trillion and this is supported by the deflation of the central banks, demands of developed countries and pegged currencies of developing or third-world countries (Murphy, 2006). Furthermore, McKibbin and Sidorenko said that the impact on th developing countries will be compounded by the trading volumes and flight of of investors who will “rush to pull fonds from these countries” (Murphy, 2006, 59). In general, it can be said that, although accurate predictions on the impact of threatening flu pandemics cannot be exactly formulated, economists worldwide still agree that even if the world will be exposed to mild pandemics, everyone will still suffers and no one, regardless of economic stratus or monetary possessions will be free from the global negative effects of influenza (Murphy, 2006 ).
D. Deaths
Previous influenza pandemics have retrieved the life of a number of innocent individuals (Keen, 1995). The first well-documented case of influenza outbreak was recorded in 1580 and about 28 more cases were documented from that year up to 1900 while Spanish influenza was the first flu pandemic which occurred in 1918-1919 and victimized about 40 to 50 million people worldwide, the most number of recorded deaths that is caused by a single medical ailment (GMA News Research, 2009). The Spanish influenza affected citizens between 20 to 45 of age in the areas of North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Brazil, and the South Pacific and its causative agent was specifically, influenza type A virus H1N1 (GMA News Research, 2009). Asian influenza, on the other hand, is the second flu pandemic that hit the globe in 1957-1958, killed about 2 million people, and was caused by type A virus H2N2 (GMA News Research, 2009). It was first identified in China and it generally affected the older population including people of ages 55 years old and above (GMA News Research, 2009). The third flu pandemic, Hong Kong influenza, was identified in 1968 and victimized about 1 million people in the Southeast Asia through the action of its causative agent, type A virus H3N2 (). The last of these pandemics is the Swine flu H1N1 which was first discovered in North America and spread n all parts of the globe (WHO, 2009).
Influenza is indeed a disease that can cause mild signs and symptoms to healthy individuals but not to the children, the old, and the immunocompromised patients because post-complications can surely aggravate the burdens of the underlying diseases. The global negative effects of the disease can better be understood by looking at the four aspect of human life and this are Biology, Medicine, Economy and Deaths. These are the areas which are most affected by the prevalence of the disease. Consequently, the fate of mankind lies in the hands of the present generation and the actions that will shape the future. Everyone should act hand-in-hand to control and mitigate the effects of the deadly influenza disease.
Categories:
Flu,
Global Negative Effects of Flu
0 коммент.:
Отправить комментарий